data analysis methods for qualitative descriptive research

Observations involve the collection of data by systematically watching or perceiving one or more events, interactions, or nonverbal communication to address or to inform the research question(s). Specifically, talk represents data that are extracted directly from the voices of the participants using data collection techniques such as individual interviews and focus groups. With respect to the latter, see Leech and Onwuegbuzie 2008 with typology wherein the following four major sources of qualitative data prevail: talk, observations, images, and documents. 2011-which identified twenty-three analysis approaches-but by adding numerous other qualitative data analysis approaches, it also extends these works by documenting the origin of each analysis approach, mapping it onto the nine moments described in Denzin and Lincoln 2011 and outlining the sources of qualitative data that it can analyze. This OBO entry not only extends the work of Onwuegbuzie, et al. In particular, described here are thirty-four formal qualitative data-analysis approaches that were identified from an exhaustive search of the literature. Therefore, the purpose of this entry is to document the history and development of qualitative analytical approaches. The analysis of data represents the most important and difficult step in the qualitative research process. This, in turn, makes it more likely that as a result of the qualitative data analysis, verstehen will be achieved. Specifically, the examination of relatively small samples allows qualitative researchers to collect (maximally) rich data (e.g., via in-depth interviews, focus groups, observations, images, nonverbal communication). However, what is a limitation for one purpose (i.e., generalization of findings to the population the sample was drawn from), is a strength for another purpose. A criticism of qualitative data analysis is that because it typically involves examination of data extracted from small, nonrandom samples, findings stemming from any qualitative analysis usually are not generalizable beyond the local research participants. These phases include examining, cleaning, organizing, reducing, exploring, describing, explaining, displaying, interrogating, categorizing, pattern finding, transforming, correlating, consolidating, comparing, integrating, synthesizing, and interpreting data, in ways that allow researchers to see patterns, to identify categories and themes, to develop typologies, to discover relationships, to cultivate explanations, to extract interpretations, to develop critiques, to generate or to advance theories, and/or the like, with the goal of meaning making. More specifically, qualitative data analysis is a process that comprises multiple phases, and from which findings are extracted or emerge. Of these steps, the analysis of data arguably represents one of the most difficult steps-if not the most difficult step-of the qualitative research process because it involves a systematic exploration of meaning and the achievement of verstehen (i.e., understanding). In general, qualitative research studies primarily involve the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data (i.e., information) that naturally occur.

Thus, qualitative researchers are much more likely to study smaller but focused samples than large samples. Qualitative researchers tend to investigate not just what, where, and when, but more importantly the why and how of events, experiences, and behaviors.

Broadly speaking, qualitative research involves an in-depth examination of human experiences and human behavior, with the goal of obtaining insights into everyday experiences and meaning attached to these experiences of individuals (via qualitative methodologies such as biography, autobiography, life history, oral history, autoethnography, case study) and groups (via qualitative methodologies such as phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory), which, optimally, can lead to understanding the meaning of behaviors from the study participant’s/group’s perspective. Qualitative research can be traced back to ancient times however, the use of qualitative methods began to be formalized in certain disciplines (e.g., sociology, anthropology) only in the 19th century.

Data analysis methods for qualitative descriptive research